African American Family Life Pioneers

Our mission is to share these foundational resources to the broader academic community to preserve and enhance the development of research on African American Families.

Hill, N. E., Pinderhughes, E. E., Hughes, D. L., Johnson, D. J., Murry, V. M., & Smith, E. P. (2024). African American Family Life: Rediscovering our Foundational Works. Research in Human Development. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2024.2310453.

Areas of Research

  • Barbarin, O. A. (1983). Coping with ecological transitions by Black families: A psychosocial model. Journal of Community Psychology, 11(4), 308-322.

    Billingsley, A. (1968). Black Families in White America. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

    Billingsley, A. (1992). Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Enduring Legacies of African-American Families. Simon and Schuster.

    Christopherson, V. A. (1979). "Implications for Strengthening Family Life: Rural Black Families." In N. Stinnett, B. Chesser, & J. Defrain (Eds.), Building Family Strengths (pp. 71). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.

    Du Bois, W. E. B. (1909). The Negro American Family. Atlanta, GA: University Press.

    Edmonds, R., Billingsley, A., Comer, J., et al. (1973). A Black Response to Christopher Jencks' [Inequality] and Certain Other Issues. Harvard Educational Review, 43(1), 76-91.

    Elkins, S. (1963). Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life. New York: University Library.

    Garcia-Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & Vazquez Garcia, H. (1996). An Integrative Model for the Study of Developmental Competencies in Minority Children. Child Development, 67, 1891-1914.

    Hill, R. (1971) The Strengths of Black Families. New York: Public Affairs Committee

    Ladner, J. (1971). Tomorrow's Tomorrow: The Black Woman. New York: Doubleday & Co.

    Ladner, J. (1971). Tomorrow's Tomorrow: The Black Woman. New York: Doubleday & Co.

    Littlejohn-Blake, S. M., & Darling, C. A. (1993). Understanding the strengths of African American Families. Journal of Black Studies, 23, 460-471.

    Littlejohn-Blake, S. M., & Darling, C. A. (1993). Understanding the strengths of African American Families. Journal of Black Studies, 23, 460-471.

    McLoyd V. C. (1990). The Impact of Economic Hardship on Black Families and Children: Psychological Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotional Development. Child Development, 61(2), 311–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02781.x

    Murry, V., Hill, N. E., Berkel, C., Witherspoon, D. P., & Bartz, D. (2015). Children in diverse social contexts. In M. Bornstein & T. Leventhal (Eds.), Handbook in Child Psychology and Developmental Science (Volume 4: Ecological Settings and Processes in Developmental Systems, pp. 416-454), R. M. Lerner, Editor-in-Chief; 7th edition. New York: Wiley

    Myrdal, G. (1944). An American Dilemma. New York: Public Affairs Committee.

    Nobles, W. W. (1983). Old-time religions: Benches can't say "amen" In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Black Families (2nd Ed.). Newbury Park: Sage

    Ogbu, J. U. (1981). Origins of human competence: A cultural-ecological perspective. Child development, 413-429.

    Ogbu, J. U. (1985). A cultural ecology of competence among inner-city Blacks. In M.B. Spencer, Brookins, J. K. & W. R. Allen (Eds.). Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp.45-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

    Pattillo, M. (1999). Black picket fences: Privilege & peril among the black middle class. University of Chicago Press.

    Peters, M. F., & Massey, G. (1983). Mundane extreme environmental stress in family stress theories: The case of Black families in White America. Marriage & Family Review, 6(1-2), 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v06n01_10

    Slaughter-Defoe, D.T, Garrett, A.M & Harrison-Hale, A. O. (2006). Our children too: A history of the first 25 years of the Black Caucus of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1973-1997: XV. Affirming future generations of ethnic minority scientists. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71, 188-209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2006.00401

    Spencer, M. B., Allen, W. R., & Brookins, G. K. (Eds.). (1985). Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children. Psychology Press.

    Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and psychopathology, 9(4), 817-833. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1017/S0954579497001454

  • Carew, J. V. (1980). Experience and the development of intelligence in young children at home and in day care. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 45(6-7, Serial No. 187).

    Clark, R. (1983). Family life and school achievement: Why poor Black children succeed or fail. University of Chicago Press.

    Frazier, E. F. (1932). The Negro Family in Chicago. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.

    Frazier, E. F. (1939). The Negro Family in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.

    Garcia Coll, C. T.; Meyer, E.C.; Brillon, L. (1995). Ethnic minority parenting, In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Vol. 2: Biology and ecology of parenting. Bornstein, Marc H. (Ed); Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 1995, pp. 189-209.

    Harrison, A., Serafica, F., & McAdoo, H. (1984). Ethnic families of color. In R. D. Parke, R. N. Emde, H. P. McAdoo, & G. P. Sackett (Eds.), Review of Child Development Research: The family, 7, (pp. 329-371). University of Chicago Press.

    Jarrett, R. L., & Burton, L. M. (1999). Dynamic dimensions of family structure in low-income African American families: Emergent themes in qualitative research. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(2), 177-187. http://search.proquest.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/scholarly-journals/dynamic-dimensions-family-structure-low-income/docview/232573692/se-2

    Martin, E. P. & Martin, J. M. (1978). The African American Extended Family. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Mason, C. A., Cauce, A. M., Gonzales, N., & Hiraga, Y. (1996). Neither too sweet nor too sour: Problem peers, maternal control, and problem behavior in African American adolescents. Child Development, 67(5), 2115–2130. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.2307/1131613

    McAdoo, H. P. (1983). Black families 2nd Edition Newbury Park, NJ: Sage

    McAdoo, H. P. (Ed.). (2007). Black families (4th ed.). Newbury Park, NJ: Sage.

    McAdoo, J. L. (1979). Father-Child Interaction Patterns and Self-Esteem in Black Preschool Children. Young Children, 34(2), 46-53. doi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42724162

    Slaughter, D. (1969). Maternal antecedents of the academic achievement behaviors of Afro-American Head Start children. Educational Horizons, 48, Fall, 24-28.

    Slaughter, D. (1983). Early intervention, maternal and child development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48(4), Serial No. 202.

    Slaughter-Defoe, D. T., Nakagawa, K., Takanishi, R., Johnson, D. (1990). Toward cultural/ecological perspectives on schooling and achievement in African- and Asian American children. Child Development, 61, 363-383.

    Spencer, M. B. (1983). Children's cultural values and parental child rearing strategies. Developmental Review, 3(4), 351-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297%2883%2990020-5

    Sudarkasa, N. (1983). African American family life: An instrument of culture. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Black families (2nd Edition), Newbury Park, NJ: Sage

    Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion Regulation: A Theme in Search of Definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166137

    Wilson, M. N. (1984). Mothers' and grandmothers' perceptions of parental behavior in three-generational Black families. Child Development, 1333-1339.

    Wilson, M. N. (1989). Child development in the context of the Black extended family. American Psychologist, 44(2), 380.

    Wilson, M. N., Tolson, T. F., Hinton, I. D., & Kiernan, M. (1990). Flexibility and sharing of childcare duties in Black families. Sex Roles, 22, 409-425.

  • Allen, J. (1995). Natural language understanding. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co., Inc.

    Allen, W. R. (1985). Race, income, and family dynamics: A study of adolescent male socialization processes and outcomes. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

    Boykin, A. W., & Toms, F. D. (1985). Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (pp. 33–51). Sage.

    Brega, A. G., & Coleman, L. M. (1999). Effects of religiosity and racial socialization on subjective stigmatization in African-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22(2), 223-242.

    Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53(4), 364-374. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786741

    Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1(4), 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0104_4

    Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1999). The nature of parents' race‐related communications to children: A developmental perspective. In L. Balter, & C. S. Tamis‐LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 467–490). Psychology Press.

    Peters, M. F. (1985). Racial socialization of young Black children. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (pp. 159–173). Sage Publications, Inc.

    Richardson, B. (1981). Racism and child-rearing: A study of Black mothers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate School.

    Thornton, M. C., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Allen, W. R. (1990). Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black parents. Child development, 61(2), 401-409. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02786.x

    Stevenson, H. C., Jr. (1994b). Racial socialization in African American families: The art of balancing intolerance and survival. The Family Journal, 2(3), 190-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480794023002

    Sudarkasa, N. (1983). African American family life: An instrument of culture. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Black families (2nd Edition), Newbury Park, NJ: Sage

    Stevenson, H. C., Jr. (1994b). Racial socialization in African American families: The art of balancing intolerance and survival. The Family Journal, 2(3), 190-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480794023002

  • Barnes, E. J. (1991). The Black community as the source of positive self-concept for Black children: A theoretical perspective. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black Psychology (pp. 106-130).

    Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(4), 591-599. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394

    Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1940). Skin color as a factor in racial identification of Negro preschool children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 11(1), 159-169.

    Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. The Journal of Negro Education, 19(3), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.2307/2966491

    Cross Jr, W. E. (1978). The Thomas and Cross models of psychological nigrescence: A review. Journal of Black Psychology, 5(1), 13-31.

    Cross Jr, W. E. (1985). Black identity: Rediscovering the distinction between personal identity and reference group orientation.

    Cross Jr., W. E. (1971) The Negro-to-Black Conversion Experience. Black World, 20, 13-27.

    Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling a Black and White Model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12(4), 153-165.

    Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Greenwood Press.

    Hraba, J., & Grant, G. (1970). Black is beautiful: A reexamination of racial preference and identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16(3), 398. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030043

    Johnson, D. J. (1992). Developmental pathways: Toward an ecological theoretical formulation of race identity in Black-White biracial children. In M. P. P. Root (Ed.), Racially Mixed People in America (pp. 37–49). Sage Publications, Inc.

    Johnson, D. J. (1992). Racial preference and biculturality in biracial preschoolers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 38, 233-244.

    Nobles, W. W. (1989). Psychological Nigrescence: An Afrocentric Review. The Counseling Psychologist, 17(2), 253–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000089172003

    Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805.

    Semaj, L. T. (1981). The Black self, identity, and models for a psychology of Black liberation Western Journal of Black Studies, 5(3), 158

    Semaj, L. T. (1985). Afrikanity, cognition, and extended self-identity. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The Social and Affective Development of Black Children (pp. 173–183). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Spencer, M. B. (1983). Children's cultural values and parental child rearing strategies. Developmental Review, 3(4), 351-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297%2883%2990020-5

    Spencer, M. B. (1984). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes and self‐concept: A reinterpretation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25(3), 433-441.

    Spencer, M. B. (1985). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes, and self-concept: A reinterpretation. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry & Child Development, 616–630.

    Spencer, M. B., & Horowitz, F. D. (1973). Effects of systematic social and token reinforcement on the modification of racial and color concept attitudes in black and white preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 246.

    Spencer, M. B., Allen, W. R., & Brookins, G. K. (Eds.). (1985). Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children. Psychology Press.

    Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and psychopathology, 9(4), 817-833. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1017/S0954579497001454

    Spencer, M. B. (1983). Children's cultural values and parental child rearing strategies. Developmental Review, 3(4), 351-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297%2883%2990020-5

    Spencer, M. B. (1984). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes and self‐concept: A reinterpretation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25(3), 433-441.

    Spencer, M. B. (1985). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes, and self-concept: A reinterpretation. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry & Child Development, 616–630.

    Spencer, M. B., & Horowitz, F. D. (1973). Effects of systematic social and token reinforcement on the modification of racial and color concept attitudes in black and white preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 246.

  • Banks, W., & Rompf, W. (1973). Evaluative bias and preference behavior in black and white children. Child Development, 44, 776-783.

    Boykin, A. W. (1977). Experimental Psychology from a Black Perspective: Issues and Examples. Journal of Black Psychology, 3(2), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/009579847700300209

    Burton, L. M., & Price-Spratlen, T. (1999). Through the Eyes of Children: An Ethnographic Perspective on Neighborhoods and Child Development. In Cultural Processes in Child Development (pp. 77-96). Psychology Press.

    Burton, L. M., Dilworth-Anderson, P., & Merriwether-deVries, C. (1995). Context and surrogate parenting among contemporary grandparents. Marriage & Family Review, 20(3-4), 349. http://search.proquest.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/scholarly-journals/context-surrogate-parenting-among-contemporary/docview/61342116/se-2

    Graham, S. (1992). "Most of the subjects were White and middle class": Trends in published research on African Americans in selected APA journals, 1970–1989. American Psychologist, 47(5), 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.5.629

    Hilliard III, A. G. (1994). What Good Is This Thing Called Intelligence and Why Bother to Measure It? Journal of African American Psychology, 20(4), 430–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984940204004

    Hilliard, A. G. III. (1990). Misunderstanding and testing intelligence. In J. I. Goodlad & P. Keating (Eds.), Access to knowledge: An agenda for our nation's schools (pp. 145–157). College Entrance Examination Board.

    Knight, G. P., Cota, M. K., & Bernal, M. E. (1993). The socialization of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic preferences among Mexican American children: The mediating role of ethnic identity. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(3), 291-309. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863930153001

    Marshall, S. (1995). Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement. J Youth Adolescence 24, 377–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537187

    McLoyd, V. C., & Randolph, S. M. (1984). The conduct and publication of research on Afro-American children: A content analysis. Human Development, 27(2), 65-75.

    McLoyd, V. C., & Randolph, S. M. (1985). Secular Trends in the Study of Afro-American Children: A Review of "Child Development," 1936-1980. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78-92.

    Moore, E. (1985). Ethnicity as a variable in child development. In M.B. Spencer, G.K. Brookins, & W.R. Allen (Eds.) Beginnings: The social and affective development of black children (pp.101-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Neighbors, H. W., Jackson, J. S., Campbell, L., & Williams, D. (1989). The Influence of Racial Factors on Psychiatric Diagnosis: A Review and Suggestions for Research. Community Mental Health Journal, 25, 301-311.

    Staples, R. (1971). Towards a Sociology of the Black Family: A Theoretical and Methodological Assessment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 119-138.

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Our article touches upon only a subset of the foundational pieces that are important for understanding African American family life. We invite you to join in the conversation. We invite you to both review and use this list in your own work, study, and teaching. Further, we invite you to use this form to add to this list.

Developed by the Study Group on Race Culture & Ethnicity